In semiarid Mediterranean environments, low nitrogen (N) and water availabilities are key constraints to cereal productivity. Theoretically, for a given level of N or water stress, crops perform better when co-limitation occurs. Empirical evidence of this theoretical concept with field crops is rather scarce. Using data from field experiments we evaluated whether N-use efficiency (NUE) and water-use efficiency (WUE) in small grain cereals increases with the degree of co-limitation. Four field experiments were carried out during three growing seasons including factorial combinations of bread wheat, durum wheat and barley, grown under different N fertiliser rates and water regimes. Yield gap was calculated as the difference between maximum attainable yield and actual yield while stress indices for N (NSI) or water (WSI) were calculated as the ratios between actual N uptake or water use and those required to achieve maximum yields, respectively. Water and N co-limitation was calculated as CWN=1-|NSI-WSI|. The relationships of yield gap, NUE and WUE with the different co-limitation indices were evaluated. Yield gap (range from -3.8 to -8.1 Mg ha -1) enlarged (was more negative) with the highest levels of stress and, as expected from theory, it was reduced with the degree of co-limitation. WUE ranged from 6.3 to 21.8 kg ha -1 mm -1 with the maximum values observed under conditions in which co-limitation increased. Reduction in yield gap with increased degree of co-limitation was mainly due to a positive effect of this variable on WUE.
